Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney Trilogy: Courtroom Mystery and the Shadow of Internalized Orientalism

 * This article contains major plot elements and spoilers from the Ace Attorney series.

 *You can see the original korean version of this article at: https://www.gamegeneration.or.kr/article/b7bc306f-e358-448e-8828-c2d03bf6edad

“Objection!” When I think of Ace Attorney, this line is the first that comes to mind. I started playing the series in 2009, and even now—15 years later—I still find it immensely enjoyable. Whenever the main character, a defense attorney shouts “Objection!”, it still gets my heart racing. Back in 2009, there was no official Korean release, so I purchased and played the English version on my mobile phone. Later, after I got a smartphone and tablet, I bought the apps and played the Japanese version instead. It was not until 2019 that Ace Attorney was officially released in Korean, with a localized compilation of the first three titles.

So when I heard earlier this year that a compilation of parts 4, 5, and 6 would be released, I was thrilled with anticipation. I also found myself wondering how the experience of playing Ace Attorney as an adult might differ. Would hearing the lawyer say “No objections!” still make my heart race?

* Main Title of Ace Attorney 4–6

The Ace Attorney series is a representative example of the courtroom mystery genre. An article titled “Ace Attorney from a Lawyer’s Perspective” was also featured in Volume 2 of Game Generation. Since the release of its first installment in Japan in 2001, the series has produced a total of eleven titles to date, including spin-offs. Ace Attorney has become both a nostalgic game for fans around the world and a franchise that continually inspires anticipation for its next installment. The series is a text-based adventure game in which the protagonist, a lawyer, must prove the innocence of their client in criminal trials. The gameplay is largely divided into two parts: the investigation part, where evidence and information are gathered for trial, and the trial part, where the attorney negotiates with the defendant, witnesses, and prosecutors. As a first-person visual novel, Ace Attorney has the player take on the role of a defense attorney who effectively acts as a detective, following the progression of each case and uncovering the true culprit. Activities such as interviews and evidence collection take place during the investigation phase, while in the trial phase, the attorney not only defends the client but also, in the course of the trial, plays a decisive role in exposing—and effectively prosecuting—the true culprit.

In this process, a mysterious figure appears as an assistant who supports the protagonist’s legal work: the “spirit medium.” Spirit channeling serves as a crucial narrative device that transforms Ace Attorney into a full-fledged courtroom mystery drama.

Mystery narratives can generally be divided into two types: “suspense” and “classic (honkaku) mystery.” There is a clear distinction between the two. If suspense is driven by the appeal of a riddle that draws the reader in, then classic mystery places its emphasis on the logical resolution of that riddle. This distinction was articulated by Shu Takumi, the creator of Ace Attorney 1, 2, 3, and 4, during his presentation on the series at the “GAME CREATORS CONFERENCE ’18 (GCC ’18)” held in Osaka in 2018. Describing Ace Attorney as a “classic mystery,” he remarked that “in classic mystery, as long as there are agreed-upon rules and premises between the author and the reader, any element can be employed logically.”

One such element is the occult motif of “spirit channeling,” introduced in the early entries of the Ace Attorney series. Among the characters are spirit mediums who can summon the souls of the deceased into the courtroom to testify, while the protagonist, Phoenix Wright, at times seeks guidance from these channeled spirits. In this game, the device of “spirit channeling” functions both as a clue and as an assistant, ultimately contributing to the completion of its mystery narrative.

Ace Attorney is a game that closely resembles a mystery narrative with a linear and singular storyline. The presence of spirit mediums in the game can be understood as a device introduced to overcome the “repetition” and “convention” that tend to accumulate in the detective mystery genre as a series continues within such a linear narrative structure. Comparing Ace Attorney to the mystery genre in literature, Yoo (2017) argues that the game, as a medium, transforms narrative into an object of play, creating an experiential space in which readers (players) can become more deeply immersed in the story. Through the game’s narrative and distinctive elements such as “spirit channeling,” the courtroom trials themselves become a form of experience and play. In this way, Ace Attorney is not merely a game about proving a defendant’s innocence in court. Rather, it becomes a kind of mystery-solving game, in which the protagonist, a defense attorney, takes on the role of an investigator by gathering evidence and information, even receiving new clues and guidance from spirit mediums-mysterious figures-and ultimately uncovering the truth of each case while proving the innocence of the wrongly accused.

Following the early installments, which were widely well received, the later series—Ace Attorney 4–6—were released in succession while maintaining the same framework of narrative progression. After the departure of the original creator, Shu Takumi, the later titles directed by Takeshi Yamazaki introduced new gameplay systems that, like spirit channeling, function as both “clues” and “assistance.” As devices designed to break the monotony of a repetitive structure, examples include protagonist Apollo Justice’s “Perceive” ability and Athena Cykes’s “Mood Matrix.” These systems are used to prompt defendants or witnesses to provide new testimony. “Perceive” identifies a person’s habits, detecting when they become tense during certain statements and what they may be trying to conceal. The “Mood Matrix,” on the other hand, uncovers contradictions between a person’s testimony and their emotions, drawing out new clues in the process.

 * “Perceive” in Ace Attorney 4 / “Mood Matrix” in Ace Attorney 5

First introduced in Ace Attorney 6, the “Divination Séance” is a spiritual ability that recreates and displays the sensory experiences of the deceased during the final moments before death. Unlike earlier devices, which functioned merely as “clues” or forms of “assistance,” this occult element is accepted in court as decisive evidence. This is made possible by the fact that the setting of Ace Attorney 6 is not Japan, as in the previous installments (1–5), but a fictional country known as the Kingdom of Khura’in. The Kingdom of Khura’in is a theocratic state in which only those capable of spirit channeling can become monarch, and where the souls of the dead (=anima) constitute the central object of belief. As a result, the role of spirit mediums differs significantly from that in earlier titles, and the “Divination Séance” occupies a much more central position within courtroom proceedings. Indeed, this device functions as such decisive evidence that it can, on its own, easily lead to a guilty verdict for the defendant. By setting the game in a fictional country rather than a real-world nation like Japan—thereby avoiding the need for strict logical consistency—Ace Attorney 6 introduces a new system infused with occult elements. This both increases the game’s level of difficulty and provides a distinct kind of mystery-driven enjoyment.

* The “Divination Séance” in Ace Attorney 6     

Why, then, was the setting of Ace Attorney 6 suddenly shifted from Japan to the Kingdom of Khura’in? As Shu Takumi suggested, it was likely to establish a stage in which the new gameplay system devised for mystery—namely, the “Divination Séance”—could be employed logically through the “rules and premises agreed upon between the author and the reader.” In addition to the “Divination Séance,” there is another key setting in Ace Attorney 6 that serves the mystery. In the Kingdom of Khura’in, there exists a law known as the “Defense Culpability Act,” according to which, if a defendant is found guilty, the defense attorney who represented them is subjected to the same punishment. From the perspective of game systems, this can be seen as an element of “game realism” (Azuma, 2012), wherein if the protagonist fails in their defense, they are executed, resulting in a game over. In this sense, the “Defense Culpability Act” functions as a form of penalty that both heightens the player’s immersion and injects tension into what might otherwise become a prolonged narrative.

Herein lies the most significant difference—and the most intriguing aspect—between the earlier installments and Ace Attorney 6. In Ace Attorney 6, the princess of the Kingdom of Khura’in asserts that the “Divination Séance” alone constitutes truth, and that all defense attorneys who represent criminals are inherently evil. It is none other than a Japanese defense attorney—the protagonist—who ultimately brings enlightenment to this young princess. Moreover, in Khura’in, where defense attorneys have all been executed or have disappeared due to the Defense Culpability Act, it is again a Japanese lawyer who secures the first not-guilty verdict in 23 years. Although there exists a resistance group within Khura’in composed of former lawyers, they prove powerless before the authoritarian regime; in the end, it is the Japanese protagonist who becomes the catalyst for revolution.

Unlike the earlier entries, these narrative elements depict Japan (or the Japanese protagonist) as occupying a position of superiority—awakening and guiding another nation. While this differs from conventional forms of Orientalism, it nevertheless seems to reproduce another variant of it. To be sure, the protagonist’s perspective remains empathetic and does not overtly demean other cultures. Yet, with the shift in setting from real-world Japan to the fictional Kingdom of Khura’in, the position of Japan—or the Japanese protagonist—comes to resemble that of Western observers who once gazed upon the “Orient.”

The depiction of the Kingdom of Khura’in also appears to reflect an Orientalist gaze through which the West has historically viewed the East. Elements such as the dot on the forehead resembling the Hindu bindi, costume designs, architectural styles in the background, and a language system similar to Sanskrit all suggest that the setting of Khura’in draws heavily from Hindu and Buddhist cultural spheres. In particular, the dragon depicted on the resistance group’s flag bears a striking resemblance to that of Bhutan’s national flag. Indeed, players of Ace Attorney 6 have speculated that the portrayal of Khura’in seems to be influenced by cultures from Himalayan regions such as Bhutan or Tibet. Composed of a hybrid of vaguely defined “Eastern” images, the Kingdom of Khura’in ultimately appears not as a fully realized fictional nation, but as a strange and identity-less construct that serves as the game’s setting.

Such a portrayal of Khura’in raises critical concerns about how even within the broader “Eastern” sphere, other Asian cultures can be viewed through an internalized, Western-centric Orientalist lens. Of course, for many players who enjoy Ace Attorney for its gameplay, these concerns may be easily overlooked. However, if this fictional Eastern nation is indeed a reproduction shaped by internalized Western Orientalism, then it remains open to critique and concern—regardless of whether such representation was intentional on the part of the creators. Given the global popularity of Ace Attorney, there is also the risk that it may contribute to the spread of misconceptions and stereotypes about the East.

* Screenshots related to the “Kingdom of Khura’in” in Ace Attorney 6

In Orientalism, Said argues that Western biases toward the East have, through numerous texts and institutional authorities, come to acquire the status of objectivity and universality (Said, 1991). Such perceptions do not operate solely within the West’s view of the East, but can also influence how Eastern societies perceive one another. This points to what may be called internalized Orientalism—a mode of consciousness and discourse in which the East differentiates itself internally in oppositional terms. One manifestation of this is Japanese Orientalism, which can be understood as a product of identification and objectification in which Japan, rather than identifying itself as part of Asia, reinforces a self-conscious distinction from other Asian countries through an externalizing gaze (Kang, 1997; Yoon et al., 2006). Having absorbed Western perspectives on Asia and the legacy of Western imperialism, Japan has come to adopt a form of Orientalist viewpoint toward Asia (Chae, 2009). In this context, the appearance of a religious and mystical fictional Eastern nation in a Japanese-produced game—depicted in a quasi-Third World manner, and constructed through a hybridization of diverse Asian cultural elements—produces an unavoidable sense of subtle dissonance. The selective appropriation and recombination of exotic and mystical imagery further reinforces this effect. As a result, Ace Attorney 6 is not entirely free from criticism regarding its reproduction of Orientalist biases and stereotypes.

The United States federal government, along with many state governments and institutions, has already begun to avoid the use of the term “Oriental” in official documents. This is because the term has long been criticized for carrying discriminatory connotations that can demean or stereotype Asians. It implies a perspective that reduces Asians to a single homogeneous group and objectifies them as exotic and mysterious others viewed from a Western standpoint. Accordingly, since 2016, the term “Oriental” has been increasingly replaced with “Asian” in U.S. federal statutes and official documents.

However, refraining from the use of a particular word does not in itself eliminate Orientalism. Terms such as “Oriental style” continue to be used in everyday contexts, including in the arts, and Orientalist stereotypes remain subtly embedded throughout daily life. Jin (2014), in discussing internalized Orientalism in the East, argues that such frameworks lead Eastern subjects themselves to perceive and imagine themselves within these confines, thereby making it difficult to conceive of an “East” that exists beyond Orientalism.

Park (2022), in his discussion of the intersection between Korean mystery and occult genres, notes that shamanistic elements can also contribute to the development of the occult genre through the framework of mystery. He argues that such elements can be renewed in more distinctive ways through interaction with the social environment, local specificity, and the historical conditions of culture that form the backdrop of a genre. If, in Ace Attorney 6, a system similar to the “Divination Séance” had been implemented—much like in earlier installments—through a Japanese setting and a Japanese spirit medium character, it might have been received not as another form of Orientalism, but rather as a successful expression of supernatural phenomena, shamanistic practice, or local cultural specificity.

Mystery games incorporating supernatural or fantastical elements have continued to emerge even after Ace Attorney. Examples include the Danganronpa series, which features class trials within a death game setting; The Stepper Case, a Korean-developed psychic detective adventure game; and Raging Loop, which revolves around a time-loop narrative. These elements can be understood as devices that expand the imaginative scope of the mystery genre—that is, they enable greater narrative ingenuity. The elements of the Kingdom of Khura’in presented in Ace Attorney 6 likewise clearly function as such devices for the “expansion of imagination.” At the same time, however, they carry the risk of being read as manifestations of Japan’s internalized Orientalism.

As a game series continues, it becomes increasingly difficult to expand its boundaries and push beyond its limits. Just as a game series ages, so too do its players. The gameplay elements, the expansion of imagination, the underlying ideas, and even the forms of enjoyment must all grow and evolve in accordance with their time. It would be a great shame to bring to an end the courtroom stories of Phoenix Wright, Apollo Justice, and Athena Cykes as they are. As someone who has cherished this series for a long time and hopes it will continue into the future, I found it challenging to engage in a cultural critique of the game. Nevertheless, I hope that as Ace Attorney progresses, it will “turn the tables” on criticisms of repetitive structures and predictable narratives by offering new and inventive courtroom mysteries.

To the next turnaround—"No Objection!!!"

References   

Kang. Sang-jung. (1997). Beyond Orientalism. Isan.

Kang, Shin-kyu, (2021). 서브컬처 비평 [Subculture Criticism]. Communication Books.

Park, In-seong. (2022). [미스터리란 무엇인가] 한국적 장르 서사와 미스터리 ① - 오컬트와 미스터리의 친연성과 교차성 [What Is Mystery? Korean Genre Narratives and Mystery (1): The Affinity and Intersection of the Occult and Mystery.] Gye-gan Misteri, Vol. 75, 270–284.

Azuma, Hiroki東浩紀. (2012). 게임적 리얼리즘의 탄생 [The birth of Game-like Realism] (I-Ji, Jang, Trans.). Hyunsilmunhwa.

Yoo, Sung-hwan. (2017). “Clashes between Games and Narratives and Efforts to Overcome Them: Experimental Attempts to Self-renew the Game Narrative”. Story & Image Telling, Vol. 14. pp.317-363.

Yoon Ji-kwan, Chung Chung-ho, Tae Hea-sook, Sol June-kyu, Sung Eunai, Kim Seong-kon, Lee Kyung-won, Koh Boo-eung, Rhee Suk-koo, Kim Sang-yule, and Oh Gilyoung. (2006). 에드워드 사이드 다시 읽기: 오리엔탈리즘을 넘어 화해와 공존으로 [Re-reading Edward Said: Beyond Orientalism toward Reconciliation and Coexistence]. Chaekse-sang.

Jin, Tae-won. (2014). 오리엔탈리즘과 다른 동양은 존재하는가 [Is There an East Beyond Orientalism?] Hankyoreh, Books & Thought. URL: https://www.hani.co.kr/arti/culture/book/668719.html

Chae, Yu-gyung. (2009). 조선을 향한 일본의 오리엔탈리즘 - 일본근대 미술 속의 조선의 이미지를 중심으로 [Japanese Orientalism toward Joseon: Focusing on the Image of Joseon in Modern Japanese Art]. National Research Foundation of Korea.

[저자 및 역자 프로필]

<저자>

Mimong Lee (Media Content Researcher)

I’ve been playing Nintendo games since I was a child. A few months ago, I purchased a Steam Deck on an installment plan and have been enjoying it extensively. I studied Business Administration at Kyung Hee University and Cultural Mediation at the Graduate School of Communication at Yonsei University. I am currently a Ph.D. candidate at the Graduate School of Core Ethics and Frontier Sciences at Ritsumeikan University in Japan. My research focuses on digital media content and culture, including games and webtoons.

어렸을 때부터 지금까지 항상 닌텐도 게임과 함께하고 있습니다. 몇 개월 전 스팀덱을 할부로 구매하여 열심히 즐기고 있습니다. 경희대학교에서 경영학을, 연세대학교 커뮤니케이션대학원에선 문화매개를 전공했고, 현재는 일본의 리츠메이칸 대학교 첨단종합학술연구과 박사과정에 재학중 입니다. 게임과 웹툰 등 디지털 미디어 콘텐츠와 문화를 연구합니다.

<역자>

Jisu Kim (Researcher in Cultural Studies)

I am interested in a variety of topics concerning culture, knowledge, space, and learning environment. The history of games and the life of gamers are also something that fascinates me.